The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty explained

On 13 June, Israel launched a surprise attack on Iran, striking nuclear facilities, civilian neighbourhoods, and a state broadcasting station.

Iran retaliated, sparking a larger confrontation between the two countries.

Israel said the strikes, which have already killed hundreds of Iranians, were a necessary pre-emptive measure to prevent Iran from creating nuclear weapons.

Despite Iran insisting its nuclear programme is for civilian purposes only, Tehran has long faced accusations it is developing nuclear weapons, and threatened on Monday to withdraw from the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) on account of the attacks from Israel.

Israel has also not signed the NPT and is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons.

Middle East Eye examines the NPT, a cornerstone of international law pertaining to nuclear weapons.

What is the NPT, and what does it seek to achieve?

Born from Irish proposals to end the distribution or proliferation of nuclear weapons, the NPT was signed in 1968 during the height of the Cold War.

At that time, five states had nuclear weapons: the US, France, Britain, China, and the USSR.

The NPT consists of three main pillars.

Firstly, that states without nuclear weapons were not allowed to obtain them, and that states with pre-existing nuclear arsenals could not help other states acquire new nuclear weapons.

Secondly, that states should commit to negotiations for nuclear disarmament.

Thirdly, all states have the right to use nuclear power for peaceful purposes.

How many countries are part of the NPT?

The NPT has been signed by 191 countries, including Iran.

Tehran's nuclear programme was started with help from the US prior to the NPT under the American-backed shah, who ruled Iran until 1979.

The Iranian government says its current nuclear programme is peaceful and does not have military applications. 

However, earlier this week, the International Atomic Energy Agency, known as the UN nuclear watchdog, concluded that Tehran was in violation of its obligations under the NPT.

However, US intelligence assessments suggest that Iran was not actively pursuing the manufacturing of a nuclear weapon and that it was years away from being able to produce one.

On Monday, the Iranian parliament began to draft legislation to withdraw from the NPT after it was attacked by Israel.

According to the NPT, signatories are able to withdraw if the country “decides that extraordinary events, related to the subject matter of this Treaty, have jeopardized the supreme interest of its country”.

It, however, requires countries to give three months' notice.

Several countries have never signed or withdrawn from the NPT.

India and Pakistan have not signed the treaty, and possess nuclear arsenals of their own.

North Korea signed the treaty but withdrew in 2003, and possesses a small stockpile of nuclear weapons.

Israel has also not signed the NPT and is widely believed to possess nuclear weapons. 

The Israeli government has remained deliberately ambiguous regarding the existence of Israeli nuclear weapons, although in November 2023, an Israeli government minister publicly considered dropping a nuclear bomb on the Gaza Strip.

What are the limitations of the NPT?

The NPT has faced numerous criticisms since taking effect in 1970. 

First, some countries allege that the NPT creates an exclusive club of countries allowed to have nuclear weapons. 

They argue that there are no ethical grounds why countries possessing nuclear weapons prior to the NPT should be the only countries allowed to own nuclear weapons.

Secondly, some have criticised the “Israeli Exception” to the NPT. 

Despite Israeli secrecy regarding its possession of nuclear weapons and refusal to sign the NPT, Israel has not faced significant consequences from the international community.